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Introduction
Psilocybin mushrooms, commonly referred to as magic mushrooms, psychedelic mushrooms, or shrooms, are a group of psychoactive fungi that contain the compound psilocybin, a psychedelic substance from the tryptamine family. While the exact mechanism of action remains unclear, it is believed that psilocybin interacts with serotonin receptors in the brain.
These mushrooms are found on every continent and have been categorized into over 200 species, with the most potent varieties belonging to the Psilocybe genus. Evidence from prehistoric rock art suggests that various human cultures have used psilocybin mushrooms since ancient times.

Psilocybin mushrooms gained attention in the Western world during the 1950s and sparked significant public curiosity. Along with LSD, they became part of the youth counterculture movement in the 1960s. However, their widespread use led to societal opposition, resulting in their prohibition in 1970.
Currently, psilocybin mushrooms are among the most commonly used psychedelic substances, partly due to the relative ease of cultivation and harvesting. As part of the ongoing “psychedelic renaissance,” they are being studied for their potential in treating conditions like anxiety, depression, addiction, and other mental health issues.
Physical and Chemical Properties of Psilocybin and Psilocin
Psilocybin is a naturally occurring tryptamine derivative that contains an indole ring attached to an aminoethyl group. It shares structural similarities with serotonin, a monoamine neurotransmitter derived from the amino acid tryptophan. Psilocybin belongs to a broader class of tryptophan-based compounds, which originally acted as antioxidants in early life forms and later evolved to take on more complex roles in multicellular organisms, including humans.

Psilocybin appears as a white, crystalline solid that dissolves in water, methanol, and ethanol but is insoluble in nonpolar organic solvents like chloroform and petroleum ether. Its melting point ranges between 220–228 °C (428–442 °F), and it has a slightly ammonia-like taste. The compound has estimated pKa values of 1.3 and 6.5 for the two phosphate hydroxyl groups and 10.4 for the dimethylamine nitrogen, giving it a typical zwitterionic form. Psilocybin also exists in two distinct crystalline polymorphs, with some hydrated phases reported. Notably, it oxidizes quickly when exposed to light, which is crucial to consider when using it as an analytical reference.
Psilocin appears as a yellowish crystalline substance, also soluble in water, and more prone to degradation through oxidation. It has a molecular weight of 204.27 g/mol and melts at about 173–176°C.
Psilocybin is stable in dried mushrooms, while psilocin, being more reactive, tends to degrade more rapidly when exposed to light and air.
Psilocybin extraction
Experimental
A representative sample of 2 to 10 g of dried mushrooms is ground to a fine powder by mortar and pestle. The powder is mixed with 100 mL of dilute acetic acid in a 250 mL beaker. The pH is readjusted to pH 4 with glacial acetic acid. After standing 1 h, the beaker is placed in a boiling water bath for 8 to 10 min, or until the internal temperature of the acid mixture reaches 70 °C. The beaker is removed and cooled to room temperature under running water. The acid mixture is separated from the mushroom powder by suction (or simple) filtration using glass wool. The filtrate is brought to pH 8 with concentrated ammonium hydroxide (NH4OH) and quickly extracted with two 50 mL portions of diethyl ether. Gentle mixing instead of shaking should be used to prevent an emulsion. The ether is dried over sodium sulfate, filtered, and evaporated with no applied heat.
Crude psilocin will appear as a greenish residue. Recrystallization from chloroform/heptane (1:3) yields white crystals.
Results and Discussion
This method permits rapid isolation of psilocin from hallucinogenic mushrooms by co-extraction of both psilocin and psilocybin. Dilute acetic acid is an excellent solvent for this purpose because both compounds are very soluble in acetic acid11 and very little of other interfering substances are extracted, It is most likely some other compounds are co-extracted but are removed from psilocin in the ether extraction from the aqueous base. Psilocybin is completely dephosphorytated to psilocin by heating the acid extract. After addition of the base, extraction into ether should be performed promptly because of decomposition of psilocin at a greater pH than 7. The extraction and dephosporylation steps produce reasonably pure psilocin from a small amount of mushroom material.
Psilocybin Pharmacology and Dosage
Psilocybin is classified as a psychoplastogen, meaning it is a substance that can stimulate rapid and long-lasting changes in neural plasticity.
Once ingested, psilocybin quickly converts into psilocin through dephosphorylation. Psilocin acts as an agonist for various serotonin receptors, also known as 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT) receptors. In animal studies, particularly with rats, psilocin exhibits a strong affinity for 5-HT2A receptors and a lower affinity for 5-HT1 receptors, such as 5-HT1A and 5-HT1D. Its effects are also influenced by 5-HT2C receptors. The mind-altering effects of psilocin, which resemble psychotic states, can be inhibited in a dose-dependent manner by the 5-HT2A antagonist ketanserin. Research indicates that interactions with receptors beyond the 5-HT2 family also play a role in the drug’s subjective and behavioral effects. For instance, psilocin indirectly elevates dopamine levels in the basal ganglia, and certain mind-altering symptoms of psilocin can be diminished with haloperidol, a broad-spectrum dopamine receptor antagonist. This suggests that there may be an indirect role of dopamine in the hallucinogenic effects of psilocin. Unlike lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), another well-known 5-HT receptor agonist, psilocybin and psilocin do not have an affinity for the dopamine D2 receptor. Psilocin has a moderate affinity for histamine H1 receptors, which is higher than that of LSD.
Serotonin receptors are distributed throughout many regions of the brain, including the cerebral cortex, and they play critical roles in regulating mood, motivation, body temperature, appetite, and sexual drive.
Psilocybin also causes changes in glutamate levels in specific brain regions, which may be linked to the subjective experience of ego dissolution.

Dosage
- Microdose: 0.1-0.3 gram
- Low dose: about 1 gram (10 mg of psilocybin)
- Medium dose: about 1.75 grams (17.5 mg of psilocybin)
- High dose: about 3.5 grams (35 mg of psilocybin)
- Mega dose: 5 grams or more (50 mg of psilocybin)
Duration
- Total 6 – 8 h
- Onset 20 – 45 min
- Come up 1 – 1.5 h
- Peak 2 – 2.5 h
- Offset 2.5 – 3.5 h
- After effects 4 – 24 h
Psilocybin Use
Historically, psilocybin-containing mushrooms were used in religious and shamanic ceremonies, particularly by indigenous cultures in Mesoamerica. The practice largely died out after colonization but experienced a resurgence in the 20th century with the rise of psychedelic culture.
Today, psilocybin is primarily used for recreational purposes and in therapeutic settings. It is consumed either by ingesting dried mushrooms, taking psilocybin extracts, or using synthesized psilocybin.
In clinical contexts, psilocybin is being studied for its potential to treat a range of mental health disorders, including treatment-resistant depression, anxiety, PTSD, and substance use disorders. Studies have shown that, under controlled conditions, psilocybin can lead to lasting improvements in mood and mental health when used in conjunction with psychotherapy.

A 2009 national survey on drug use conducted by the US Department of Health and Human Services found that the number of individuals trying psilocybin mushrooms for the first time in the United States was similar to those trying cannabis for the first time. A report released in June 2024 by the RAND Corporation indicates that the overall number of days psychedelics are used is about 100 times lower than the number for cannabis use. Additionally, unlike cannabis and many other substances, the majority of psychedelic use days are attributed to occasional users rather than regular users. The 2024 RAND Corporation report also points out that psilocybin mushrooms might be the most commonly used psychedelic substance among American adults.
In Europe, the lifetime use of psychedelic mushrooms among young adults (ages 15–34) is estimated to range between 0.3% and 14.1%, depending on the country.
In contemporary Mexico, traditional ceremonial use of psilocybin mushrooms continues among various indigenous communities, such as the Nahuas, Matlatzinca, Totonacs, Mazatecs, Mixes, Zapotecs, and Chatino. While Psilocybe species that produce hallucinogenic effects are widespread in Mexico’s lowland regions, most ritualistic use takes place in mountainous areas above 1500 meters (about 4900 feet). Researcher Guzmán suggests this pattern may be a remnant of Spanish colonial influence from centuries ago, during which the use of these mushrooms was suppressed by the Catholic Church.
Psilocybin Health Effects
The effects of psilocybin are highly influenced by the user’s mindset and environment during the experience, commonly referred to as “set and setting.” In the early 1960s, Timothy Leary and his team at Harvard University explored how set and setting impact the effects of psilocybin. They administered the substance to 175 volunteers from diverse backgrounds in a setting designed to feel like a cozy living room. Of these, 98 participants completed questionnaires assessing their experiences, focusing on the influence of their background and the context of the experience. Participants with prior exposure to psilocybin tended to have more positive experiences compared to those new to the substance. Key factors like group size, dosage, preparation, and expectations significantly shaped the drug’s effects. Larger groups of over eight people were perceived as less supportive, resulting in less enjoyable experiences, while smaller groups (under six people) were considered more supportive, leading to more positive responses. Leary and his colleagues suggested that psilocybin increases suggestibility, making users more sensitive to social interactions and their surroundings. These insights were supported by a later review by Jos ten Berge in 1999, who highlighted that dosage, set, and setting were critical in determining the outcomes of studies examining the effects of psychedelics on artistic creativity.
After consuming psilocybin, users may experience a range of emotional states, including feelings of confusion, lethargy, euphoria, joy, or even depression. In one study, 31% of participants given a high dose experienced significant fear, while 17% reported brief feelings of paranoia. Research from Johns Hopkins University found that moderate doses (enough to provide a high likelihood of a profound experience) rarely led to negative reactions, but one-third of participants given a high dose reported feelings of anxiety or paranoia. Low doses can cause mild hallucinations, often seen with closed eyes as vivid, multicolored geometric patterns or imaginative scenes. Some users report experiencing synesthesia, such as feeling tactile sensations when observing colors. At higher doses, psilocybin can result in an “intensification of emotional responses, greater capacity for introspection, regression to more primitive or childlike thoughts, and vivid recollections with strong emotional content.” Open-eye visual hallucinations are also common at higher doses, often intricate yet generally not mistaken for reality.
A 2011 prospective study led by Roland R. Griffiths and colleagues found that a single high dose of psilocybin could produce long-lasting changes in personality traits. About half of the participants—described as healthy, “spiritually active,” and many holding advanced degrees—showed a sustained increase in openness (measured through the Revised NEO Personality Inventory), which persisted over a year after their psilocybin session. The researchers emphasized the significance of this result, noting that “no study has prospectively demonstrated personality change in healthy adults following a specific experimentally induced event.” A follow-up study by Griffiths in 2017 reported that doses of 20 to 30 mg/70 kg of psilocybin, which induced mystical-like experiences, led to enduring changes in traits such as altruism, gratitude, forgiveness, and feelings of connectedness when combined with consistent meditation and a comprehensive spiritual support program. While other researchers have observed that psychedelic use can lead to personal insights and new psychological understandings, it remains uncertain whether these findings can be generalized to the wider population.
Safety Precautions
While psilocybin is generally considered safe in moderate doses, certain precautions should be taken to reduce the risk of adverse effects:
- Set and Setting: Users should ensure they are in a safe and comfortable environment, ideally with a sober “trip-sitter” present to provide support.
- Medical Conditions: Those with a history of mental illness, particularly schizophrenia or bipolar disorder, should avoid psilocybin due to the risk of exacerbating symptoms.
- Dosing: Proper dosing is crucial. It is recommended to start with lower doses and only gradually increase the amount if desired.
- Legal Considerations: Psilocybin is illegal in many parts of the world. Users should be aware of the legal risks in their area before obtaining or consuming it.
Conclusion
Psilocybin and psilocin are fascinating compounds with a rich history of use in human culture. Their psychoactive properties have both recreational and therapeutic appeal, making them a subject of intense scientific study. While psilocybin shows great promise in the treatment of mental health conditions, it should be used responsibly and with awareness of its potential risks. As research continues, psilocybin may one day become a mainstream tool for mental health therapy, but for now, it remains a powerful and controlled substance.
Bibliography
- Psilocybin and psilocin extraction from mushrooms https://bbgate.com/threads/psilocybin-and-psilocin-extraction-from-mushrooms.1521/
- Tylš, Filip, Tomáš Páleníček, and Jiří Horáček. “Psilocybin–summary of knowledge and new perspectives.” European Neuropsychopharmacology 24.3 (2014): 342-356. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0924977X13003519
- Johnson, Matthew W., and Roland R. Griffiths. “Potential therapeutic effects of psilocybin.” Neurotherapeutics 14 (2017): 734-740. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s13311-017-0542-y
- https://psychonautwiki.org/wiki/Psilocybin_mushrooms
- https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psilocybin